Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies ISSN: 2508-9250 Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies Cit this: JOWSET, 2018 (02), N°02, 342-350 Assessing Climate Variability Adaptation and Coping Strategies Among Rural Households in Kenya. Peter Kinyae Musyimi1*, Gilbert M. Nduru2, Julius M. Huho3, Francis E. Opiyo4 [1] Department of Humanities, Karatina University, Karatina, Kenya [2] Department of Environmental Studies, Karatina University, Karatina, Kenya [3] Department of Arts and Social Sciences, Garissa University, Garissa, Kenya [4] Regional Beaural for East and Central Africa, United Nations-World Food Programmes- WFP, Nairobi, KENYA. *Corresponding Author Tel. +254716026740; Email: pemusyimi@gmail.com; musyimipeter1@gmail.com The aim of this study is to assess the adopted water scarcity Received: 06 February 2018 Accepted: 07 August 2018 adaptation and coping strategies of rural households to climate Available online: 05 September 2018 variability. It also identifies suitable strategies that minimize the impact of climate variability on water sources in arid and semi-arid (ASALs) in Kenya. The study was carried out in Makindu Sub-county, Keywords: Makueni County, Kenya. Data collection techniques such as Adaptation strategies, questionnaires and in-depth interview with 370 households, key Drought, Climate change, informants interviews were used to assess the adaptation and coping Rural households strategies of rural households and identify the most suitable strategies for the study area. Rainfall data was collected from Makindu Meteorological station and used for meteorological drought characteristics analysis. Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was used to analyze drought severity in the study area between 1980 and 2011. SPI was used to quantify precipitation deficit for various time scales. Drought Intensity (DI) was used to determine decadal drought intensities. SPI results showed that 18 years out of 31 with negative SPI values an indication of drought severity occurrence. The year 2005 was the driest in the area with an SPI of -1.76. The study also showed increasing drought intensities from 1990s to 2000s. The study showed that the rural households had adopted varied adaptation and coping strategies to cope with impact of drought extremes on water sources. However, increase in drought characteristics occurrences minimized their resilience and adaptive capacities. The study observed that the strategies employed are unlikely to enable them cope with recent climate change and variability regimes, therefore need for most suitable and viable ones. The study identified viable strategies such as rainwater harvesting and sinking boreholes as long term measures that can enhance rural households’ resilience to climate change extremes in ASALs of Kenya. 342 Jour na l hom e pa ge: htt p: // rev ues. im ist .m a/? jo ur n a l = JOWSET Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies ISSN: 2508-9250 Introduction Africa water resources are scarce and limited in extent (RSA, Climate change adaptation is no longer an auxiliary but long term 2002). Practical solutions to water challenges depend not only reaction option only to be considered if all else fails. It is now on availability of water but also on factors such as water prevalent for those communities disadvantaged by the impacts of management process and capacities of the institutions [3-4] present day climatic hazard [1]. People therefore, should adapt to According to (UNDP, 2006) approximately 1.2 billion people precipitation variability and the spatio-temporal timeframes and almost one fifth of the world population occupy areas of beyond that of specific precipitation events [2]. This is because physical water scarcity. Further, 500 million people are water may be available but its use is constrained in terms of approaching the situation and another 1.6 billion people availability, quantity and quality [3]. For instance, Pastoralist dig confront economic water scarcity where regions lack necessary shallow wells on dry water pans to access the water for their infrastructures to draw water from rivers and aquifers. This livestock and other basic uses. RUTTEN (2005) argues that Maasai calls for right political decisions and relevance of studies that pastoralist in Kajiado County, Kenya made use of dry river beds are being conducted on the national, regional and local to during dry spells by scooping sand in search of water. In order to address water problems [3]. adjust to water shortages, some changes are urgently required 1. Study area: Makindu Sub-County that will maintain and improve the potential of water supply systems to keep serving its function [4]. For instance, rain water The study was conducted in Makindu Sub-county of Makueni harvesting constitutes a reliable source of drinking water and if County in South Eastern part of Kenya. The region falls under properly managed, could reduce water and food crisis in several ASALs of Kenya. The dominant economic activities are developing countries [5]. Adaptation is adjustment of social and subsistence agriculture and agro-pastoralism. The livelihood environmental systems to changes and shocks [6]. For example, in systems are exposed to drought occurrences. The dominant Samburu county pastoralist dig shallow wells in the river beds ethnic community is the Akamba with few Maasai who where water accumulates during rainy season and is of help practice pastoralism during drought spells [7]. Further, in Egypt rainwater harvesting is 2. Geographical Setting an alternative to more expensive desalination of blackish ground Makindu Sub-County (Fig. 1) has an average elevation of about water [8]. Therefore due to stresses posed by drought and water 1064 meters above sea level. It is located in south eastern scarcity there is need for households to adjust to the shocks for Kenya with a size 2075.6 km2. It lies on latitude 20 101 and 20 better livelihood. Studies by Sewell, Kates and Phillips (1968) show South and longitude 370 401 and 370 551 East [10]. It is typically adaptation as a strategy that requires more time. It involve arid and semi-arid land (ASAL) and often experiences changes in lifestyles, livelihood systems and agricultural practices. prolonged drought. According to 2009 census report, the All these changes requires water availability which remains a population of the Sub-county stands at 42,042 with 9,907 pressure on regions under threat of climate change (IPCC households [11]. Technical “climate change and water”, 2008). Kenya being a water The area normally experiences a bimodal rainfall distribution scarce country therefore, should conserve water sources and start patterns with long rains falling in March, April and May (MAM) new ways of harvesting rain and underground water [9] .There is and short rains experienced in October, November and need for informative mechanisms that can address drought December (OND) [10]. However, this has kept on changing related water scarcity. Therefore, it is important to assess since rainfall onset may start earlier than the said month or adaptation strategy of drought related water scarcity in Makindu start later than the expected time. The area lies in lower side of Sub-County of Makueni County. WARMA (2015) argue that Makueni County and receives annual rainfall ranging from measures like building dams, pans and harvesting rainwater 300mm-400mm (Makueni CIDP, 2013). Drought is a recurrent should be put in place to ensure water availability for all in ASALs. phenomenon in the climatic history of the region. Rainfall has The current trends indicates that water shortage challenges will been characterized by spatio-temporal distribution and continue to become increasingly complex. This will conflict all variability which leads to water scarcity. Over the last couple of other sectors of developmental such as energy, agriculture, years extreme temperatures have been reported. For instance mining, education and environment transportation and the area often experiences a minimum temperature of 240C to communication [3]. Geographical distribution of water resources a maximum temperature of 35.80C [10].The predominant does not correspond to water demand. For example, in South 343 Jour na l hom e pa ge: htt p: // rev ues. im ist .m a/? jo ur n a l = JOWSET Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies ISSN: 2508-9250 vegetation in this area is mainly a cover of shrubs and thicket, County, Kenya. The data includes records and observations for grass and herbaceous plants. The dominant wood tree species 31 years which is conventional for climatic studies analysis [14]. include baobab trees (Adansonia digitata), Umbrella thorn tree The rainfall data was analyzed using Standardized Precipitation (Acacia tortilis), Terminalia brownie, Sanseveria, Acacia melliferra Index (SPI) to quantify and analyze drought severity. Drought and Acacia etbaica [13].The soils in this area are well drained, Intensity was used to compute the three decadal drought shallow to deep, yellowish red to dark brown colored, friable high intensities. The SPI has been used in previous studies in arid rich in calcisols, cambisols, luvisols dominated by calcium and semi-arid areas (ASALs) of Kenya for instance Turkana carbonate [12] County [15] and Laikipia County [16]. Drought intensity was obtained by subtracting the annual rainfall totals for a given year from the mean annual rainfall for 31 years (1981-2011 Meteorological drought in the study area were classified as mild or near normal when SPI values ranged from 0 to -0.99, moderate when the range was between -1.00 to -1.49. Severe droughts occurred when the SPI values ranged between -1.50 to -1.99 and extreme droughts occurred when the SPI value was between -2.00 and below. The normal mean precipitation is when SPI was zero (0.00). Each drought episode was characterized by lead-time which is the number of months within drought event before SPI ≤ -1 is reached; duration, defined by time between its beginning to its end; magnitude was calculated by the sum of SPI for every month from the initiation to the end of each drought event and the intensity: ratio between magnitude and duration of the drought episode. The standardized precipitation index (SPI) was used to monitor Fig. 1: Location of Study Area in Makueni County moisture supply conditions and identified emerging drought Source: www.Patrickmusimba.co.ke months which were used and computed on various time scales (1981-2011. Methodology Sampling and Data Analysis Procedures 1. Research Design The study used proportionate and purposive sampling to select The study research design used was a mixed research approach. A sub-locations from Makindu Sub-County locations and Key combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods informants respectively. The locations included Ngakaa, were adopted. Quantitative data was obtained from Makindu Twaandu, Kiboko and Makindu. In the sampled sub-locations, Meteorological Station and was used to analyze drought severity rural households were randomly interviewed using and drought intensity. Qualitative method was adopted to questionnaire. A total of 370 rural households were examine the perceived impact of drought on water resources and interviewed. Data from key informants which included identify the households’ adaptation and coping strategies to water Ministry of water and irrigation County officers, Kwa-vombo scarcity. Interview schedules and questionnaires were used to Spring managers, and Kibwezi Makindu, Water and Sanitation gather data from rural households. The study also employed key Company (KIMAWASCO) managers was also gathered. Semi- informants interviews to supplement data got from rural structured questionnaires were used to collect data. The households. instrument collected data on general household characteristics which included gender, age, family size, educational 2. Rainfall Data background, perceived impact of drought on water sources The data used in the study includes rainfall data for three decades and adopted adaptation and coping strategies to water (1981-2011) from Makindu Meteorological Station in Makueni scarcity in the area. The collected data was coded and 344 Jour na l hom e pa ge: htt p: // rev ues. im ist .m a/? jo ur n a l = JOWSET Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies ISSN: 2508-9250 analyzed using SPSS (Version 20) (SPSS Statistics, 2011). The 1995 465.9 -0.58 Near Normal software was fundamental in analyzing general households’ 1996 454.4 -0.63 Near Normal characteristics, Perceived impacts of drought on water sources 2000 521 -0.31 Near Normal and the employed adaptation and coping strategies of rural 2002 491.4 -0.45 Near Normal households in the study area. 2003 362.2 -1.09 Moderately dry 2004 501 -0.40 Near Normal Results and Discussion 2005 225.8 -1.76 Severely dry 2007 467.8 -0.57 Near Normal This section examines and presents drought characterization; 2008 405.6 -0.87 Near Normal drought severity and drought intensity for the three decades from 2009 368.7 -1.06 Moderately dry 2010 537.6 -0.22 Near Normal 1981-2011. The perceived impact of drought on water sources 2011 450.8 -0.65 Near Normal and adaptation and coping strategies are also discussed. Further, the paper examines the challenges faced by rural households as Source: Authors compilation Makindu Meteorological Station they address water scarcity data (2015) Drought intensities in the study area varied from one decade 1. Drought Characterization to the other. For the period between 1983-1987 drought intensity was 30.10 percent below the mean, 20.58 percent Drought is a recurrent phenomenon in arid and semi-arid areas (ASALs) of Kenya. However previous studies are showing that the below the mean for the period between 1991 and 1996 and areas are getting drier due to increased drought frequency [15-16]. 28.3 percent below the mean for period from 2000-2009.( Fig. The study in context used SPI to analyze and quantify drought 2,3 and 4) The results indicated that there were decreasing severity in Makindu Sub-county. Analysis shows that mild/near decadal drought intensities from 1980s to 1990s. Conversely, normal, moderately dry and severe droughts were experiences in there was increasing decadal drought intensities from 1990s to Makindu Sub-county in the year between 1981and 2011 in the 2000s. ). Drought intensity was expressed in the following study area. . Mild/ Near normal droughts occurred in the year formulae; 1985, 1986, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1996, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2007, DI = x – x ………….Equation 2 2008, 2010, 2011 and had drought severity ranging from -0.03 in x the year 1986 and -0.87 in the year 2008. Moderate droughts were DI = Drought intensity experienced in the year 1987, 2003, and 2009 with drought X = Mean annual rainfall for the study period (1981 - severity index of between -1.06 in 2009 and -1.43 in the year 1987. 2011) Severe droughts occurred in 1983 and 2005 with drought severity X = annual rainfall for a given year of -1.60 and -1.76 respectively (Tab. I).These widespread Decadal drought intensity = Average of drought years/Mean droughts in the study area had posed a major threat to water annual rainfall*100 sources. ). Drought severity was expressed as follows: SPI =(x- x)/ δ ……………….Equation 1 Where; X = Annual rainfall amount for a given year; X = Mean annual rainfall for the period of 31 years (1981 - 2011). Tab. 1: Drought Severity in Makindu Sub-County between 1981and 2011 Drought Annual rainfall SPI (Drought Drought Quantification years (mm) (x) standardized precipitation index) 1983 257.4 -1.60 Severe dry 1985 501.9 -0.40 Near Normal 1986 577.8 -0.03 Near normal 1987 293.4 -1.43 Moderately dry 1991 488.9 -0.46 Near Normal 1993 443.2 -0.69 Near Normal 345 Jour na l hom e pa ge: htt p: // rev ues. im ist .m a/? jo ur n a l = JOWSET Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies ISSN: 2508-9250 drying up of water sources of the already water stressed Fig. 2: First decade drought intensity County. In the study area drought was the major cause of the drying up of rivers and streams as perceived by 71.4 percent of the households. Drying up due to abstraction was mentioned by 11.6 percent of the household. While 17.0 percent of the households argued that both drought and water abstraction led to drying up of rivers and streams. (Fig. 5) Fig. 3: second decade drought intensity Fig. 5: perceived impact of drought on rivers and streams Shallow wells were common in Rivers Makindu, Kiumbi, Muooni, Kikuu and Wayona. The study established that there were communal shallow wells which included Mathayoni, Kalakalya, Mumbuni and Soto that served residents of Kaunguni Sub Location. Analysis shows that 64.1 percent of the Fig. 4: third decade drought intensity households perceived that drought led to reduced amount of water in shallow wells while 35.9 percent indicated that Source: Authors compilation Makindu Meteorological Station data (2015) drought led drying up of water in shallow. For instance, the study established that prolonged droughts of 2002-2005 and The unpredictable decadal drought intensities is likely to have 2007 -2011 led to drying up of all shallow wells, rivers and been influenced by an active ENSO cycle which had five EL- Nino streams with exception of River Kiboko. This prompted episodes (1982/1983, 1986/1987, 1991/1993, 1994/1995 and community in partnership with NGOs to sink boreholes. 1997/1998 and three La-Nina episodes of 1984/1985, 1988/1989, Earth dams and water pans were also affected by prolonged 1995/1996 [17]. and severe droughts. Results showed that 42.2 percent of the 2. Perceived Impact of Drought on Water Sources households perceived that drought led to drying up of earth dams and water pans. 26.2 percent of the households ASALs in Kenya are characterized by high evapotranspiration and exceeding annual precipitation. [18]. Drought has had a lot of perceived that drought led to reduction of water levels in earth impact on water sources. Previous studies show that pastoralists dams and water pans. About 31.6 percent of the households in Mandera County [19] migrate in search of water due to dried perceived that levels of water in the earth dams and water water pans resulting from drought. OPIYO (2014) observed that 18 pans went down because of siltation, leaching and high rate of % of households in Turkana County perceived that drought led to evaporation and over use by households. This statement 346 Jour na l hom e pa ge: htt p: // rev ues. im ist .m a/? jo ur n a l = JOWSET Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies ISSN: 2508-9250 corroborates with [20] that due to failed short term rains and From the study, rain water harvesting was the most preferred subsequent failing of long rains there has been reduced flow and water scarcity adaptation strategy. This was because the drying up of water resources such as earth dams and water pans. households used storage structures such as storage tanks and As established by the study, Earth dams in the area were used to techniques like roof catchment to harvest water which go to ease overuse of boreholes by rural households and livestock in waste during rainy season in the months of March ,April and different sub locations. They included Sekeleni, Kwa- May( MAM) and October, November December( OND. These Mweu/Munyalo, Miangeni, Kwa-Kasina and Kwa-Luma. results are consistent with [21] who observed that most Households from Mitendeu and Ndovoini Sub-Location perceived households’ adapt to erratic water supply by buying water that siltation and overuse by residents led to reduced water containers for storage purposes once the water is harvested. holding capacity of water in Sekeleni and Kwa-Luma earth dams. Households with tanks of large storage capacity practiced roof This statement agrees with [21] who observed that earth dams in water harvesting during rainy season. This provided water unto them during the dry spells. MINISTRY OF WATER AND Laikipia County were faced by the problems of siltation, high IRRIGATION-MWI (2015) argue that rain water harvesting evaporation rates, seepage, ownership and community presents opportunities to address water scarcity in ASALs management. 85.7 percent of the households perceived that during periodic dry spells. Further, Studies by [22] shows that if drought led to reduced flow of water in Kwavombo spring while water was affordably cheap, there would be resources for rural 14.3 percent of households stated that encroachment of people households to develop. This is because water scarcity denies who practiced irrigation farming around the spring contributed to households means to develop. In addition, [23] found that reduction levels of water leading to rationing of amount of water rainwater harvesting is very effective and inexpensive and can supplied to households’. be effectively used in ASALs which are highly affected by water 3. Households Adaptation and Coping Strategies to scarcity. Households stated that rainwater could take about 2-3 Water Scarcity months once it was harvested. This ensured availability of Analysis shows that households’ used various water scarcity water during dry months from June to July. Rainwater water adaptation and coping strategies. 33.5 percent using rain water harvesting and storage is vital in ensuring water availability harvesting techniques, 22.4 percent using boreholes, 14.6 percent especially during prolonged dry season and droughts. It has using piped water, 8.6 percent used shallow wells, 8.9 percent high degree of reliability especially to rural households who trekking for long distances, 6.0 percent adopted water tankering have invested in high capacity rainwater storage tanks [24-25] while 6.0 percent used earth-dams, sand dams and pans as short The study established that water from the boreholes was term measures to address water scarcity. (Tab. 2). available all times. This implies that boreholes are reliable sources of water in Makindu Sub-County during water scarcity Tab. 2: Adaptation Strategies to Water Scarcity regimes. This statement corroborates with US-GEOLOGICAL SURVEY (1993) assertion that in arid or dry regions people rely Adaptation strategies No. of rural Percentages (%) on ground water (Boreholes) to meet their needs. For instance, households in Isiolo County, boreholes were the most reliable sources of Boreholes 83 22.4 water during dry spells [26]. Rainwater harvesting 124 33.5 Piped water connections 54 14.6 Findings indicated that piped water was also a reliable because Coping strategies No. of rural Percentages (%) its source. Its source was Kwa-Vombo spring which was households permanent. However, there was rationing because 2596 Water tankering 22 6.0 households in the locations used it. The rationing made taps to Earth dams, Sand dams 22 6.0 run dry four times a week in Kalii, Kai, Kaunguni Sub-Locations and pans which were the farthest from Kwa-Vombo spring. Households Shallow wells 32 8.6 from Kiu and Manyatta Sub Location stated that piped water Trekking for long 33 8.9 was reliable to them because of their proximity to the spring. distances, Total 370 100 In case of damaged pipes, the study established that there Source: Authors compilation from field data, 2015 were delays in repairing them. This was because of poverty and inability of rural households to pay bills. This finding 347 Jour na l hom e pa ge: htt p: // rev ues. im ist .m a/? jo ur n a l = JOWSET Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies ISSN: 2508-9250 corroborates with [23] who stated that households’ inability to influx of people near Kwa-Vombo spring as stated by 10.8 pay electricity bills and delays in fixing damaged pipes made piped percent, 9.percent and 6.5 percent of the households water unreliable. This implies that existing piped water should be respectively (Fig. 6) improved through increasing the community drawing points for instance water kiosks and subsidizing of water bills. This finding corroborates with [27] who stated that in Marsabit County people were able to access water from piped water supply from built kiosks. The study also established that Germany Agro-Action (GAA) was involved greatly in disilting earth dams. The purpose was to maintain them and ensure maximum harvesting of surface run-off during rainy season. This suggests that well-constructed and maintained earth-dams can serve households and their livestock for long time during drought years. However, three of the earth dams which included Kwa-Kasina, Miangeni, Kwa Munyalo/Mweu earth-dams did not survive the period of prolonged drought. According to [23] most of the earth dams do not survive entire Fig. 6: Challenges to Adaptation and Coping Strategies period of drought due to extremely high evaporation rate, leaching and sedimentation. In addition, earth dams did not Previous studies shows that poverty is a major setback to sustainably keep water for long duration due to high rate of adoption of water adaptation and coping strategies. For evaporation and siltation. This assertion concurs with [28] who instance, [24] asserts that it is a hindrance to rainwater stated that water from earth-dams have short life span due to harvesting technologies in Makueni County. The study high rates of evaporation and sedimentation. Further, according established that Poverty negatively affected water harvesting to [29] in the ASALS, evaporation of open water sources can have techniques’ and boreholes because of high cost of storage a decrease in water levels amounting to 0.9-1.4m within a period tanks and high cost of sinking boreholes. Studies by [31] of about six month. Shallow wells and earth dams were at threat showed that households with higher income generation are due to their openness and high rate of evaporation in the area as suitably able to manage climate impact on water sources, established by the study. water scarcity being one. Water tankering was also adopted as a coping strategy. However, Households indicated that earth-dams and water pans were it was very expensive and was commonly used during prolonged the highest affected in terms of water borne diseases. This was droughts. Water was supplied by only one company attributed to their openness, contamination from animal (KIMAWASCO) and therefore accessibility and reliability was a droppings and washing of clothes by households. This finding is challenge. This finding agrees with [30] who stated that water in line with [23] who stated that earth- dams are unhygienic for tankering is unreliable and unsustainable for longer term; it is not home use because majority of them are open and livestock a common adopted strategy in Kenyan ASALs and is mostly used in drink water directly from them. Inadequate power supply extreme drought events. In addition a study by [30] shows that negatively affected Kwa-Vombo spring and boreholes. This was people in Isiolo County could not access water from water because boreholes using solar power were slow influencing the tankering because it is not practiced in large scale and the cost flow of water and delaying households for many hours while involved was huge. inadequate power supply in the spring led to water rationing. The study established influx of people near the spring for 4. Challenges to Adaptation and Coping Strategies irrigation highly affected the levels of water in Kwa-Vombo Analysis showed that 33 percent of the households indicated spring. This led to water rationing affecting the amount of poverty as the major challenge in the area, 13.8 percent argued water reaching the households. In addition, findings indicated that inadequate power supply and 13.2 percent stated political that people were reluctant in conserving water and supporting wrangles and resistance from the community. Other challenges projects initiated by N.G.O s because of political interference. included water borne diseases, high cost of storage facilities and They also indicated that politicians used water scarcity issue to 348 Jour na l hom e pa ge: htt p: // rev ues. im ist .m a/? jo ur n a l = JOWSET Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies ISSN: 2508-9250 gain political mileage. This led to poor support of the existing 4. J Ivey, J Smithers, R de Loe, R Kreutzwiser. Community water projects. These findings concurs with[27]) who found that in Capacity for adaptation to Climate- Induced Water Shortages: Linking Institutional Complexity and Local actors. Marsabit County water was rationed during dry season whereby Environmental Management, 2004, 33(1), 36–47. each village got water one day at a time and this led to a week or 5. B Helmreich, H. Horn. 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Climate variability and change on vulnerability and adaptation decreasing due to drought of varied severities. This decrease in among Turkana pastoralists in North Western Kenya: PhD dissertation, amount of water was in tandem with households’ perceptions on University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya. 2014 the impact of drought on water resources Analysis also showed 16. J Huho. Effects of drought severity on subsistence agriculture in the Semi- arid Laikipia district. PhD Dissertation, Maseno University.2011 that rural households embraced rainwater harvesting techniques, 17. NOAA. El-nino and Lanina. Climate Prediction Centre U.S.A. 2005 sinking boreholes as adaptation strategies to water scarcity. 18. Republic of Kenya .ASALs development policy. Ministry of Arid and Semi- However, they were faced by challenges of varied magnitude Arid Lands. Nairobi. Republic of Kenya. 1992 which included influx of people near permanent Kwavombo 19. E Wendy, L Mpoke, Yishak.Mitigating the impact of drought in Moyale springs and poverty. district, Northen Kenya. 2012 20. KFSSG. Mwingi District Short Rains 2010. Assessment Report (17th –21st January 2011). Nairobi: Kenya Food Security Steering Group. 2011 Acknowledgment 21. P Ngima. Impacts of water shortage in Githurai ward, Kiambu County, Kenya. Unpublished Masters’ thesis, Kenyatta University.2015 22. A Afullo, O Danga. Are the water trips in the dryland Kenya for sustainable Great gratitude to Mr. Otego , Makindu Meteorological Station development, Journeys in vain or trips to Oblivion. Ethiopian Journal of Officer for providing of rainfall data of which it was of great value Environmental studies and management. Vol.6 (3), 2013 for analyzing drought characteristics. We would also like to 23. M Munyao. 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