Department of Food Science and Nutrition
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Item A Preliminary Survey of Animal Handling and Cultural Slaughter Practices among Kenyan Communities: Potential Influence on Meat Quality(African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 2016) Lokuruka, MichaelKenya is composed of over 40 ethnic communities who practice varied methods of animal handling and slaughter. Socio-cultural and religious traditions have the potential to influence animal handling and slaughter practices. These influences have, however, not been documented in the literature as far as the author is aware. Also, the literature has documented the connection between the manner of animal treatment and meat quality, but this is rarely discussed in the literature in Kenya; this connection is important as it informs modern meat trade practices by Kenyans as they trade in the global arena. This survey aimed to mainly establish and document the animal slaughter practices among Kenyan communities, and, to also highlight any current provisions related to meeting modern animal welfare requirements, animal handling procedures in the meat trade and discuss their potential influence on meat quality available in commerce in Kenya. This preliminary study surveyed the slaughter practices among 10 different Kenyan communities through a semi-structured questionnaire, focus group discussions and individual interviews. The survey demonstrated that different Kenyan communities practice varied methods of animal slaughter depending on whether the animal being slaughtered is for public feasting, domestic consumption or commercial merchandizing. The Kenyan communities surveyed in this study depend mainly on males to slaughter livestock for females preparing it for domestic use using a number of instruments and methods. For small stock for domestic consumption, females may slaughter the animal except for Muslims whose males have to slaughter the animal with a special knife (a Khalef) according to Muslim rites to render it Halal. Large stock is invariably slaughtered by males irrespective of the community, and the manner of use of the carcass. Gender, age, religion, community and the size of the animal were the major determinants of the method of animal slaughter. The animal welfare issues highlighted in the survey and related to the handling and slaughter of livestock have important implications for meat quality during commercial merchandizing. There is an apparent need to provide education to herders, livestock handlers, employees and management in the livestock industry in Kenya on the relationship between animal welfare requirements, animal handling procedures and meat quality. Such awareness can potentially improve the quality and economic value of the meat available in commerce.Item A Literature Review of Role of Obesity in Adult Health with Reference to Africa(African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 2013) Lokuruka, MichaelAlthough obesity is a global epidemic that affects every socio-economic class, little is available in the literature on the status of the syndrome in Africa. This literature review was therefore written in order to highlight the causes, effects and potential mitigation measures of the syndrome with particular interest on the status of the condition in Africa. Obesity results from an incorrect energy balance leading to an increased store of energy, mainly as fat. The major factors that contribute to obesity include over-nutrition, physical inactivity, change of dietary habits, modernization, consumption of high fat, high carbohydrate foods, urbanization and in a minority of patients a physical condition or metabolic disturbance. Body mass index (BMI) is currently being used by competent authorities as an index of obesity. BMI differentiates classes of obesity, with class I, II and III being identified with BMI of ≥30 but <35, ≥35 but <40, and ≥40, respectively. A BMI of 18.5-25 is regarded as normal. However, it is sometimes difficult to differentiate obesity due to excess fat deposition and that due to muscle atrophy. Also, current procedures for estimating body fat percentage are not as accurate as they should and often give different results. Despite women tending to be more obese than men, they are less prone to hypertension, heart disease and type 2 diabetes than men before they reach menopause due to their fat deposition being predominantly sub-cutaneous rather than abdominal. In 2010, the WHO estimated that about 1.4 billion adults were overweight and obese, but 300-400 million were obese. The defining metabolic changes in obesity are decreased glucose tolerance, decreased sensitivity to insulin, hyperinsulinemia and reduced life expectancy. Obesity can be treated by restricting food intake and engaging in regular physical exercises. Other measures include the use of anorectic drugs and various forms of jejunoileostomy. Obesity is a controllable behavioural disorder, with regular exercise and sensible eating being the best ways to regulate body fat percentage and maintain a healthy body weight. As it is difficult to treat obesity, efforts should be directed towards prevention in order to keep it in check.Item Role of Zinc in Human Health with Reference to African Elderly: A Review(African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 2012-10) Lokuruka, MichaelThis review of the literature was conducted to assess dietary zinc intake among the African elderly, discuss the potential impact of current levels of zinc intake on their health, and to recommend strategies for improving their dietary zinc intake. As zinc plays an ubiquitous role in human metabolism, determination of its dietary intake among African elderly is important from a health standpoint, if the consequences of widely reported deficiency are to be mitigated. Animal meats and seafood are rich sources of zinc, with nuts and legumes being relatively good plant sources. Zinc bioavailability is relatively higher in animal foods due to absence of inhibitors of zinc absorption and the presence of cysteine and methionine, which improve its absorption. Zinc in plant-based foods is less bioavailable for human metabolism due to presence of chelators, phytates and dietary fibre, which inhibit absorption. Individuals at the greatest risk of zinc deficiency include infants and children, pregnant and lactating women, patients being fed intravenously, malnourished individuals including those with protein-energy malnutrition and anorexia nervosa; others are individuals with chronic or persistent diarrhoea, malabsorption syndromes, those with alcoholic liver disease, sickle cell anemia, strict vegetarians, and the elderly aged 60 years and over. A reduced capacity to absorb zinc, increases the likelihood of disease states that may adversely alter zinc utilization, and increased use of drugs that increase zinc excretion, may all contribute to increased risk of mild to moderate zinc deficiency in the elderly. Also, in situations of diminished access to adequate and balanced diets, health care and good sanitation, the likelihood of developing mild to moderate zinc deficiency is high among poor African elderly. Due to the consequences of impaired immune system function in zinc deficiency in the elderly, it is critical to maintain an adequate zinc intake by this group. Despite mild zinc deficiency being unlikely to lead to severe zinc deficiency in individuals without a genetic disorder, zinc malabsorption or conditions of increased zinc loss such as severe burns can also result in mild to severe zinc deficiency. Diets for poor African children, pregnant and lactating women, and the elderly, are deficient in zinc. This is mainly due to low food intake, relatively lower intake of animal foods and high phytate and fibre content of the staple plant-based foods. Fortification of staples and inclusion of inexpensive and available animal protein sources, in plant-based diets for the elderly can increase their dietary zinc intake.